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ANTIBIOTICS Introduction ·  Antibiotics are the chemical substances produced by or derived from microorganisms (bacteria or fungi), which kill or suppress the growth of other microorganisms at very low concentrations. ·  The first antibiotic, Penicillin was discovered by Eminent British Bacteriologist, Sir Alexander Fleming in 1928 AD. ·  He was doing research on Staphylococcus (bacteria). One day, he saw some spores of mould growing in his laboratory. While throwing the moulds out of the window, one of the moulds landed on one of his Staphylococcus colonies. He observed that these bacteria were quickly destroyed. ·  He came to the conclusion that moulds had some characteristics that inhibited the growth of Staphylococcus. The mould was identified as Penicillin notatum and the active substance was therefore named Penicillin. ·  But until 1941AD, Penicillin was not purified and used for clinical purposes. ·  Chloramphenicol is the first completely synthet...

·  Transplantation is defined as the removal of tissue or organ from one part of the body and transplanting it to another part of the body of the same person or another person of the same species or another individual of different species. ·  This process is usually applied to replace the injured or diseased tissues or organs with natural and artificial ones. ·  An organ or tissue thus transplanted is known as transplant or graft. ·  The person or a source from whom the organ or tissue is taken is called the donor and the person to whom it is transplanted is called the  recipient. ·  Hamberger was the first person to successfully carry out kidney transplantation in 1953 AD. ·   Christian Bernard performed the first successful heart transplantation in 1967 AD. (Cape Town, South Africa) Types of Transplantation ·  On the basis of the  relationship of donor and recipient, transplantation is classified into the following four types. ...

·  It is a technique, in which a small amount of amniotic fluid is withdrawn from the mother’s womb (uterus) at a very early stage (14th or 15th week of conception) of foetal development. ·  It is a prenatal diagnostic technique for detecting genetic or other foetal disorders and sex of the foetus based on the chromosomal pattern in the amniotic fluid in the amniotic sac surrounding the developing embryo. Procedure of the Amniocentesis i. The location of the foetus and placenta are determined by sonography at the early stage of the pregnancy. ii. A local anaesthetic can be given to the mother to relieve pain during the insertion of the needle. iii. Then a small amount of amniotic fluid (about 20 cc) that surrounds the foetus (embryo of animal) is withdrawn with the help of a hypodermic needle (special surgical needle) passed through the abdominal wall and uterine wall into the amniotic sac containing amniotic fluid without causing any damag...

·  Fish farming is the scientific and systematic breeding and rearing of fishes in natural habitats (ponds, lakes) and artificial habitats to increase the production and quality for human consumption. ·  It is the principal form of aquaculture that involves the breeding and taking care of fish for increasing their production. ·  It was established in Nepal in 1957 A.D. Scope of Fish Farming ·  Fishes are easily available and can be cultured in many regions of Nepal. ·  Many educated and uneducated people are involved in fish farming due to the following reasons: (i) Fishes are a rich source of protein. ·  The protein content of fish is comparatively higher than that of eggs or another animal source. (ii) Byproduct of Fish ·  The important byproducts of fish are: (a) Fish Oil ·  It is of two types: liver oil and body oil. ·  Liver oil is used in making medicines. It is rich in vitamins A, D and B complex. ·  Body oil is u...

·  Rearing several types of birds like chickens, ducks, geese, pigeons, turkey for the commercial production of meat, egg, feather and manure (fertilizer) is called poultry farming. ·  In Nepal, the poultry industry includes the culture of chickens for meat, eggs and fertilizer. ·  Single Comb White Leghorn, Rhode Island Red and White Plymouth Rocks (Broilers) are commercially used breeds in Nepal. The first  two breeds are good egg layers whereas the latter is raised for meat. Various Steps in Poultry Farming A. Selection of Breeds ·  It is essential as different breeds have different egg-laying capacities and flesh production. ·   Breeds should be selected according to environmental conditions and nutrient availability. ·  In context to Nepal, the pullets (chicks) are the best species. ·   They should grow very quickly and can produce 250 eggs/year minimum. 1. Layers or Egg Laying Types ·  They have higher rates of egg prod...